Archives: Book Chapters

Introduction

After the Second World War several countries in eastern Europe came under the communist league. As communism showed antagonism to religion, Church as an institution almost has been suppressed barring Poland. The Catholic Church in Poland continued to survive amidst strong opposition from the government and it bore a strong witness by opposing the oppressive regimes. The Church stood for the rights and dignity of human beings and therefore got back people into its fold who at one time abandoned it Also that the present Pope Paul II comes from Poland, it has given the Church a boost in its activities in the 20th century. For the Church to be alive in Poland several priests had to lose their lives. Among them the most prominent was Father Jerzy Popieluszko. He died as a martyr for the cause of human dignity and freedom.

General Background

After the Second World War, Poland was placed within the communist sphere as a result of the Yalta agreement and the Church found itself in constant confrontation with the communist system imposed upon the country. Poland grew into a totalitarian state and the ruling group tried to gain and maintain absolute power with itself, power over all people and all spheres of life. To achieve this power, it never hesitated to destroy all structures and forces which opposed it. All socially significant positions were occupied by members of the ruling group to ensure total control over all spheres of life. Through lies and a reign of terror established by an extensive security system, it enslaved people. In these circumstances the problem of freedom, of human rights and dignity became the primary problem for the individual and the nation. (Balchwickif, A Theology of Liberation -- in the Spirit. pp. 161-162, Religion in Communist Lands, Vol. 12, No. 2 Summer 1984, pp. 157-167.)

The Church as an institution survived in Poland unlike other countries of the communist block where it has been successfully marginalized. The Catholic Church with 95% of total population of Poland had played an important role in the struggle for freedom and human dignity against the oppressive system. Throughout its struggle, since the end of the war, the Church has drawn attention to and has made the people sensitive to the values of human dignity and freedom. (Ibid., p. 162.)

The Emergence of Solidarity

The conflict between the Church and State since the communist takeover in 1947 can be divided into three periods, 1947-1956,1956-1970, and 1970 to the present. The first period witnessed to the struggle of the Church for its survival as an institution against government’s attempts to gain control over it. At the outset of the second period of 1956-1970, Khrushchev’s attack on Stalinism at the 20th party congress of the Soviet Union in February 1956 shocked the whole of Eastern Europe including Poland. In Poland Lalladyslow Gomulka became the new party secretary. But the change in party leadership did not lead to any major reform. Whereas during the first period, naked terror was used to break the autonomy of the church, now administrative pressure was applied. The government hoped that the Church would slowly die, but it survived. By the late 60s many people were frustrated with Gomulka’s socialism which in fact was an oppressive regime. Young poles began to be attracted by "the pageantry, national traditions, patriotism and the sincerity and friendship which they found in the Church". (A. Tomsky, Poland Church on the Road to Gdansk, pp. 30-31, Religion in Communist Land. Vol.9, Nos.1-2, Sept. 81, pp. 28-29.) The second period also saw the decline of belief in official ideology and Christianity as the only "alternative ideology" which could unite the people against the state. In 1970, the beginning of third period, military men fired at striking workers on the Baltic Coast in December and this incident made Gomulka to step down from power. The new regime led by Edward Curek also saw, from the beginning a collision between the Church and the state. Since 1972 a movement of religious renewal had developed. This later came to be known as Light of Life movement. Churches began to be built by peasants without state permission and this development received the support of some bishops. (Ibid., pp. 31-34.) In 1975 constitution amendments were announced which further strengthened the power of the Party to which the Church protested. (Ibid., p. 35.) This also led to many protests by intellectuals in 1975 and 1976. (Balchwickif, op.cit. p. 162.) The condition of economy worsened in Poland. Employers controlled the unions and workers were not allowed to strike. Yet June 1976 witnessed strikes at Radom, Plock and Umus which forced the government to withdraw increase on food prices. In all this the Church supported the striking workers. The emergence of the opposition movement in Poland had introduced a third force in Church-state relations. The alliance between the Church and the opposition movement forced the government to try to woo the Church and as a result eased some of the restrictions on the Church. But it was too late. In 1977 a protest fast was organized in the Warsaw Church of St. Martin on behalf of those workers imprisoned after the 1976 strikes. The Church continued to attack the government. (Balchwickif, op.cit. p. 163.) On 16 October 1978 Cardinal Karol Wojtyla of Krakow was elected Pope and with this the church once excluded from public life, was now in everyone’s thoughts and people began returning to its fold. The Pope visited Poland in 1979 and his message reflected Church’s responsibility to human’s moral, religious, economic and political life. His message also called upon people not to be afraid of fighting for their rights and suffering with Christ. The Pope’s visit gave a sense of confidence and unity as a nation and the strikes in the Gdansk shipyards and organization of forced trade unions was a consequence of this visit. (A. Thomsky, op.cit., p. 37.)

Solidarity, the first free trade union after the War was born in August 1980 as a result of strikes by workers in shipyards in Gdansk. (Bruno Chenu, et al., The Book of Christian Martyrs, London: SCM, 1985, p. 208.) "For the first time under a communist regime, all levels of the population were united in a free trade union which numbered around ten million members and which confronted the existing powers". (I. Krzeminski, "Solidarity the Meaning of the Experience: A Sociological Survey", p. 4; Religions in Communist Lands, Vol. 14, No. 1, Spring 1986, pp. 4-16.) Solidarity can be properly understood only in the context of the role of the Church and religion in the history and life of Poland. The solidarity movement was in essence a "spiritual revolution" started above all in response to the violation of human dignity and rights. (Ibid., p.12.) It aimed at long term social change without resorting to violence. Its leader was Lech Walesa.

Fr. Jerzy Popieluszko

Fr. Jerzy Popieluszko was born in 1947 in Bialystok. He joined the Warsaw seminary in 1966, the year in which the Church of Poland celebrated its first Millennium, but which also was a period of heightened anti-Church campaign and worst church-state relations since the early 1950s. (Grazyan Sikorska, To Kneel only before God: Father Jerzy Popieluszko, Religion in Communist Lands, Vol. 12. No.2, Summer 1984, pp. 149-146.) After a year at the seminary, Popieluszko did two years of military service in a special unit in Bartoszyce. It was here that Popieluszko had his first taste of difficulties which he would be facing later as a Catholic priest in a communist country. After two years in the army, he returned to the seminary and was ordained by Cardinal Wyszyuski in 1972. (Ibid., p. 149)

By this time Popieluszko had some experience of political reality. He, with his friends in the seminary had attended to their wounded student comrades who were beaten up by the police in the riots of 1968 and had begun to be open to political reality when Gomulka had given orders to open fire at striking workers in 1970. (Bruno Chenu, et.al, op.cit. p. 208.)

After his ordination in 1972, Popieluszko served as curate to various Churches in and around Warsaw and neighboring villages. Due to his ill health he did not have a parish of his own and as a result, he was sent to work within the medical community of Warsaw, as a priest attached to the Warsaw curia. It was during this time he became a resident priest of St. Stanislaw Kostka church in the Zoliborz district of Warsaw. (G. Sikorska, op. cit.)

In August 1980 strikes broke out at Gdansk and almost throughout Poland. On Sunday 15 August 10,000 striking workers at Huta Warszawa demanded that the mass should be held inside the iron and steel making complex. Popieluszko was chosen both by the archbishop and the strikers to celebrate this mass. (B. Chenu. op.cit. p. 209.) He said masses and heard confessions and this involvement made an everlasting influence upon him. It was here that the bond between Popieluszko and workers was born. Later, he was chosen by the workers as their chaplain at the plant, and St. Stanislaw Kostka Church became an official ‘parish’ church for the steel workers in Warsaw. (Ibid., p. 150.) In the following months, Popieluszko became involved in trade union meetings as an observer without taking part in any decisions. He began to feel a profound sympathy for solidarity. (Bruno Chenu, et.al, op.cit., p. 150.)

From April 1981 he started conducting religious services and these were related to the problems of the time. As a result, thousands of workers took part in them. (Ibid. p. 210.)

He became increasingly involved in the activities of the steel workers and ‘remained a source of moral and spiritual support to them throughout the solidarity era’, which came to an end with the announcement of martial law on 13 December 1981. (J. Luxmoore, "The Polish Church Under Martial Law", p. 124. Religion in Communist Lands, Vol. 15, No.2, Summer 1987. pp. 124-166.) Solidarity was banned and thousands of its members and supporters were detained. But Popieluszko continued to be very close to the workers and he believed this to be his duty as a priest. (G. Sikorska, op.cit., p. 150) He attended several political trials connected with action taken by steel workers during 1981. It was in the courtroom that he got the idea of conducting ‘special service for those in prison or under pressure and for their families’. In February 1982 in St. Stanislaw Kostica Church, the first mass for Poland was conducted. Thereafter masses came to be known as the ‘masses for the nation and they attracted people from all walks of life in several thousands’. (Ibid.) The masses started by reciting poetry by Polish actors and singing of national songs and ended with the same. (Ibid.)

During the masses, Popieluszko’s sermon expressed the desire "to include God in the difficult and powerful problems of the country" and repeatedly attacked ‘the abuse of human rights and freedom of conscience’ in Poland. (Ibid.)

He compared the sufferings of Poland with those of Christ on the cross:

The trial of Jesus goes on forever. It continues through his brothers. Only their names, their faces, their dates, and their birth places change." (Bruno Chenu, et.al, op.cit., p. 210.)

His was the conviction that the Church cannot be neutral in the face of injustice but the defender of all the oppressed. He pointed to the authorities a long and detailed list of all factors that prevented reconciliation. According to him, "the bitter helpless and humiliation which many people suffer daily does not assist reconciliation." (G. Sikorska, op.cit., p. 151.)

Concentrating on current problem, Popieluszko always took note of the largest issues involved such as the nature of authority and government, justice and the fundamental human right to freedom and believed that the root cause of the problems of Poland was the exclusion of God from its socio-political life and in the governing process. The basic Christian truth is that the authorities should serve the people whom they govern. Popieluszko’s sermon frequently mentioned that freedom to humans is given by God and therefore any enslavement of freedom is to work against God. (Ibid., p. 152.)

Popieluszko’s sermons express his stand against revenge and use of violence and a desire to pray not only for those who are oppressed but also for those who oppress people. As a staunch supporter of solidarity he referred to it as the ‘patriotic struggle to reinstate human dignity’. (Ibid., p. 152.)

He believed that witnessing to the truth leads to freedom and constantly encouraged his hearers to witness to truth over against the lies. It is by witnessing to the truth that one overcomes fear which is the root cause for enslavement. In one of his sermons he says, "If truth becomes for us a value, worthy of suffering and risk, then we shall overcome fear -- the direct reason for our enslavement". (Ibid., p. 154.)

The essence of Popieluszko’s vision of freedom is the concept of solidarity of hearts, which was first introduced to the Poles by Pope Paul II. He strongly challenged his hearers to show care and love for those who suffer innocently. He says, "let us pray to God to fill us with the power of his spirit, to reawaken the spirit of true solidarity in our hearts." (Ibid., p. 154.)

Fr. Popieluszko’s vision of liberation made no appeal for the Polish authorities who dubbed the "masses for the nation" as "rallies hostile to the Polish state and accused Fr. Popieluszko of abusing the Church and his position as a priest." (Ibid., p. 155.)

Since 1982, when the first mass for Poland was organized Fr. Popieluszko had been under surveillance by the security police. In December 1982 his parish house was broken and vandalized. He had been detained on a number of occasions as on 28 August 1983 on the charge of ‘abusing religion for political purposes’ and was required to face interrogations. (Irena Korba, Father Jerzy Popieluszko, p. 89; Religion in Communist Lands, Vol. 13, No.1 Spring 1985, pp. 89-90.) Four months later he had been detained on charges that large quantities of explosives and leaflets calling for a national armed uprising were found in his house. Fr. Popieluszko denied any knowledge of the material and was released on bail after the intervention of Archbishop Bronislaw Dabrowski, the secretary of the Polish episcopate. (Ibid. p. 89.) He returned to his work as usual and in May 1984 preached a sermon which implicitly supported the election boycott sponsored by solidarity. (Ibid., p. 89) Again he was summoned for interrogation in June. In August general amnesty was granted and as a result 625 political prisoners and 35,000 allegedly ordinary criminals were released. Also, under the amnesty, charges against Fr. Popieluszko were suspended on the condition that he would not give any cause for complaint for a period of two and half years. However on August 26 he preached at a mass for the prisoners freed under the amnesty and demanded the authorities to follow up the amnesty by lifting the ban on solidarity, allowing freedom of expression, releasing underground solidarity leader Bogdanlis and restoring the right to erect crucifixes in class rooms, factories and other places. (A. Tomsky, op.cit., p. 32.)

Various strategies were attempted to remove him from the public including the possibility of transferring him to another parish in exchange for the release of solidarity activist Bogdanlis and Poitr Mierzejewski. Also the church hierarchy was suggested to send him abroad for an unspecified period of study leave. Fr. Popieluszko underwent enormous pressure and had received a number of threats. (Irena Korba, op.cit., pp. 89-90.)

Fr. Popieluszko and his driver, Waldemar Chrostowski were kidnapped near Torun on 19 October 1984 by three men, one in the guise of a policeman, as they were on their way back to Warsaw from Bydogoszez where Fr. Popieluszko had been preaching. Waldamar Chrostowaski managed to escape and reported the incident to the local priest and to the state authorities. An intensive search was done but after 11 days, on 30 October, Fr. Popieluszko’s body, beaten up and tied with ropes, was found in a reservoir on the river Vistula. (Ibid., p. 90.)

Fr. Popieluszko freely admitted that he had reason to fear for his life and on one occasion he had said, "if we must die suddenly, it is surely better to meet death defending a worthwhile cause than sitting back and letting injustice win." (Ibid., p. 90.)

Reflection

Fr. Popieluszko was an ordinary Catholic priest but who sacrificed his life for the cause of human dignity and freedom. He was with the people when they were degraded, ill-treated and repressed. He was the voice of those who longed for freedom. He did not limit his duty as a priest to conduct worship services or in reducing faith into a purely private matter for the individual. Faith in God for him does not try to escape from the reality. His faith in God made him identify himself with the struggling masses. He recognized that the way to liberation is through courageously witnessing to the truth and through overcoming fear. It was his conviction that there is meaning in suffering for truth and even sacrificing one’s life for it. This conviction was a result of his understanding of God that God is a suffering God who suffers along with his suffering people and who works for their liberation. Pr. Popieluszko strived for human liberation in a given existential situation. In him, we see the ability to relate the gospel with the problem of freedom of people here and now.

The key value for which Fr. Popieluszko stood was for human dignity. His passion for human dignity was rooted in faith in God who makes no social discrimination and that love of God is love of one’s neighbor. He had a vision of national liberation through non-violent resistance and a spirit of solidarity He had become the symbol of non-violent resistance. Jerry’s sermons offer an insight into the longings of the polish people to live in a Polish way, in a Christian tradition and freedom. The life and death of Fr. Popieluszko makes him a powerful witness of a suffering and liberating God and challenges us to live likewise.

Bibliography

Chenu, Bruno, et.al, The Book of Christian Martyrs, London: SCM, 1990, pp. 207-213.

Balchwickif, E., A Theology of Liberation with the Spirit Religion in Communist Lands. Vol. 13, No. 2, Sum. 94, pp. 157-167.

Grazyan, S. "To kneel only before God: Father Jerzy Popieluszko", in Religion in Communist Lands, Vol. 12, No.2, Series 84, pp. 149-156.

______________ "Recent events in Poland", in Religion in Communist Lands, Vol.12. No.3, Chs. 84, pp. 328-340.

Korba, I., "Father Jerzy Popieluszko", in Religion in Communist Lands, Vol.13, No.1, Spr.86, 88, 89-90.

Luxmoore, J., "The Polish Church under martial law", Religion in Communist Lands, Vol.15, No.2, Sum 87, pp. 124-156.

Tomsky A., "Poland Church on the road to Gdansk", Religion in Communist Lands, Vol.7, No.1, Spring 81, pp. 28-39.

I. INTRODUCTION AND THE SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT

The Blacks in the United States of America constitute about 11% of the total population. Though they were on the American soil right from the beginning of their Republic, they are still fighting for their legitimate right in the American society. The Blacks responded to the moral challenge posed by the Institution of slavery in a variety of ways. These were in the form of uprisings and revolts mainly in the Southern part of U.S. For instance in 1817, 3000 Blacks met in Philadelphia at a Convention to protest at colorization. This movement was a significant early attempt on the part of the Blacks to organize themselves and petition to the legislature to redress their grievances.

Gradually, a civil war emerged in 1852 with the Blacks emphasizing on their liberation from slavery. When the war was finally won, nearly four million slaves got freedom.

After the civil war, there followed a period in the history of America known as reconstruction. The economic life of the South which was based on free slave labor had to be restored. President Lincoln helped them by issuing rations, establishing hospitals, etc. The most striking aspect of the post-war was that the US. Congress passed the fourteenth amendment in 1866, which made the former slaves, citizens, and extended to them equal protection under the law and protection against state interference with their life, liberty and property. A fifteenth amendment was also passed in 1869 which prohibited the states from denying the Blacks the right to vote. However, these two amendments were weak compared to the civil and political equality demanded by the radicals.

These amendments made the white community more furious and their exploitation became more ruthless. These were dealt with more ruthlessly and were terrorized particularly by the Klu Klux Klan and the white leaguers. Due to this violence and terrorist activities, the black’s participation in politics declined sharply particularly in the South.

During the post resurrection period, the Blacks carried on their struggle against segregation, expressing their strong resentment against the continued inequalities. They resented against segregation in the transport system, schools, theaters and other walks of life. As a result, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was formed in 1900. The dominant feature of this organization was legal democratic action for the attainment of equality thus, all laws supporting segregation were declared unconstitutional.

II. It is in this socio political context that Martin Luther King Jr. was born on the 15th January 1929 at Georgia in Atlanta. He began his early education in schools that were segregated. The Blacks could not go to white schools and vice-versa. The author recalls -- "His love for big words, choice expressions, and persuasive eloquence continued throughout his adolescent period which enabled him later in life to shine as a great orator and an eloquent preacher.

After his schooling, King shifted to a leading college in Morehouse. This college has the reputation the Blacks have, just as the white have for Harvard. It was here that King had his first frank discussion on the racial issue with his colleagues, his friends, and Professors. At Morehouse, King enjoyed a sense of academic freedom. His concern for racial and economic justice was significant during his stay at Morehouse. It was here, he happened to read Henry David Thoreau’s Essay on civil disobedience. He was considerably influenced by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system. In his book Stride for Freedom, King wrote "I am so deeply moved that I re-read the book several times. This was the first intellectual contact with the theory of non-violent resistance". King went on to complete his doctoral requirement by writing his thesis on "A comparison of the conception of God in the thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman".

With increased social consciousness, King was eager to experience the life of the undervalued people. He was anxious to identify himself with the masses- to know, learn and understand from their sufferings and feelings. He noted with concern how the Blacks were paid less than the Whites -- performing the same job. He also observed that money was the root -- not only of evil but also of race.

At seventeen King finished his Junior College and took a momentous decision to join the ministry. In 1947, King was ordained. He read extensively from Karl Marx, R. Niebuhr etc. with the sole desire of eliminating social evil. It was at this time that King became fascinated by Gandhi’s campaign of nonviolent ways of resistance. The whole concept of satyagraha became significantly meaningful to him. "Gandhi was probably the first person in history to live the love ethic of Jesus above mere interaction between individuals to a powerful and effective social force in a large scale. Love for Gandhi was a potent instrument for social and collective transformation, it was in this Gandhian emphasis of love and non-violence that I discovered the method for social reform I had been seeking for so many months."

The black people believed that freedom because a foretaste of that which is given in the Sermon event itself. When King spoke of dream at the 1963 ‘March on Washington,’ and when he spoke of his hope that "he will reach the promised land," the night be-fore his assassination in Memphis (April 1968), Black people believed him not because of the cogency of his logic but rather because of the spirit of empowerment generated by the style of his sermon oration. They believed him because they contended that they experienced in their hearts the spirit of God’s liberating presence.

In addition to the spoken and written style of King’s theology, parting towards freedom and hope, the same then is also found in the context of his message. The central themes of freedom and hope do define the context of King’s life and message. It is summarized in his ‘march on Washington speech’. "I have a dream that one day ... the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave holders will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood .. with this faith we will be able to transfer the jangling discords of our nations into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day."

In the Black church, King knew that the people had a hope that stretched back to beginnings of the Black Christian community in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. All he had to do was to restore that hope for freedom in the songs and language of the people, and the people would respond to the content of the message. That was why King used the language of the so called negro spirituals’ in his sermons in black churches. King’s sermons always contained the hope for freedom and he always related it to his current struggles to attain freedom in this world. But when it seemed that freedom was difficult to realize in this world, Martin King did not despair but moved its meaning to an eschatological realm as defined by the Black church’s claim that ‘The world will make a way somehow’. The night before he was assassinated (3 April 1968), King, in a Black church worship service, restated that hope with the passion and certainty so typical of the Black preacher.

"I don’t know what will happen now. We have got difficult days ahead but it is divine matter with me, because I’ve been on the mountain top. Like anyone else, I would like to live a long life. But I’m not concerned with that. I just want to do God’s will and he has allowed me to go up the mountain."

III. King’s emphasis on the eschatological hope for freedom, as defined by "the mountain top", was not derived from White theologians and philosophers, but rather from his own religious traditions. These words of faith and hope were derived from the Black people’s struggle to overcome their pain and suffering. People who have lived in the context of nearly 400 years of slavery and suffering are not likely to express an eschatological freedom. Hope in God’s coming eschatological freedom is always derived from the suffering people who are seeking to establish freedom on earth but have failed to achieve it to their perception of their humanity. In Martin King’s failure to establish freedom in his existing present, he prevented despair from becoming the defining characteristic of his life by looking forward to God’s coming, eschatological freedom. Although he had to face the threat of death daily, King denied that it had the last word, for he said in the previously quoted sermon: "I see the promised land. I may not get there with you, but I want you to know tonight that we as a people will get to the promised land. I am happy tonight that I am not worried about anything. I’m not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord". It was with this accomplishment that he courageously fell to an assassin’s bullet.

IV. THEOLOGICAL REFLECTIONS IN THE LIGHT OF THE INDIAN CONTEXT.

The Black’s situation can be easily analyzed in par with the age old caste system that has riddled India. Earlier, I held a view that problems of the Blacks differed with that of Indian situation, on biological grounds. But I have come to understand that the caste problem in India is not merely hierarchical in nature but also racial. The Dalits were the original inhabitants of this country but were forced to be branded as ‘outcastes’ by the Invading Aryans. However, the Dalit movement is not so intense as that of the Black Liberation movements, mainly because of the tribal oppressive, namely caste (hierarchy) creed (language) and race. Moreover, the Indian administrative system has its interest in the Western model of economic development rather than social development.

I am also critical of Martin King’s approach towards liberation namely non-violence. However, it must be understood that the very act of non-violence was "violence" in that particular time and context. Violence will make worthy approach in liberating the Dalits of our country. Martin King was inspired by the Gandhian approach of Satyagraha (the soul force).

Like the Blacks of the U.S.A. ‘Low’ caste people in India have been subjected to many of the evils of the caste system and are thus unable to progress along with the ‘high’ caste people. Unless the Indian Independence laws are passed against the caste system and the Indian constitution provides for equal opportunities to all people in India, that the depressed class movements can be further solidified and strengthened.

PRIMARY SOURCES:

King, Martin Luther. Chaos or Community? Hodder and Stoughton, 1968, King, Martin Luther, Strength and Love, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1964.

King, Martin Luther, Why We Can’t Wait. Harper and Row, New York.

King, Martin Luther, An Audio Tape of March on Washington.

SECONDARY SOURCES:

Alexander, M.K. Martin Luther King, A New Light Publishers, New Delhi.

Bennett, Lerone, What Manner of Man, Johnson Publishing Co., Chicago, 1964.

Cone, James, Concilium.

INTRODUCTION

"The Blood of the Martyr will be seed of the tabernacle of freedom"

I. Introduction

In the violent and tragic struggle for justice In El Salvador, the name of one man stands out as a symbol of Christian commitment and unusual courage. There were many who died for the cause of justice and many who became victims of injustice and exploitation. We remember all these martyrs as faithful witnesses to the gospel who sealed their witness with their blood.

The assassination of Archbishop Romero in March 1980 shocked the world. Oscar Romero lived all his life in the midst of poverty and injustice in Latin America. As the archbishop of San Salvador, he became the leader of the church, and he also became a man who stood for the poor, he became their voice when they were voiceless. He suffered and gave his life for them.

The situation and historical set up of Central America and El Salvador may be entirely different from our context and situation in India. Yet there are certain similarities which need to be acknowledged. Firstly, the poor, voiceless ones everywhere. Secondly, injustice and oppression present in India, also may be in different forms. In this context the life and witness of Archbishop Romero is important for us to remind us of the price that we, as Christians, are called to pay. It is a price we must pay for our vision of the kingdom of justice.

II. Social and Political background

1) There had been agitations and rising tensions between the poor peasants and the land owning business class of El Salvador for generations. (James, R. Brochman, Romero: A Life, New York, Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1989, pp. 1-3.)

2) The government of Colonel Arturo Armando Molino passed a land reform law in 1975, but the landowning business class made sure that its implementation was slow when the congress finally distributed 150,000 acres to 12,000 families, the ruling class started a campaign against it through the newspapers, radio and television stations owned by them. (Ibid., p. 4.)

3) This disappointed the peasants who had formed peasants’ Unions which were in themselves against the law in El Salvador. This is because the government was totally in the hands of the rich landowning business class. (Ibid.)

4) The poor peasants unions were a symbol of hope for a decent piece of land to live on, but to the landowning rich, these unions were ‘communist’ and satanic’. (Ibid.)

5) The Church of San Salvador supported the peasants right to organize themselves and exert political pressure. Many rural pastors and Jesuit priests joined the peasant’s struggle for social justice. This stand has brought upon them the anger of the rich ruling class. Since the peasants unions lacked legal approval, they were considered to be illegal and subversive. (Ibid., p. 33.)

4) Another incident which gave rise to the anger and uprising of the Salvadoran peasants was the ‘presidential elections’. (Ibid., pp, 35, 36) The election was to be held on February 20th, 1977, two days before Romero was to become the Archbishop of San Salvador.

One candidate represented the government party, General Carlos Numberto Romero. He was a former minister of defense and public security. He represented the rich landowning business class who did not want the distribution of land to the poor peasants. The other candidate was colonel Arnesto Claremount, a retired cavalry officer. He was sympathetic to the peasants cause and Salvadorans had some hope that if he won the elections he could change some things that were not right. But the government tried to stop the peasants from going to the elections. People who were working for the government added and duplicated names in the voters lists, the police threatened, arrested and assaulted the voters. (Ibid., p. 38.) In the midst of such a situation, Oscar Romero was to become the Archbishop of San Salvador, it was two days after the election that Romero was appointed as Archbishop. (Ibid., p. 47) On February 26th the Government declared General Romero as the winner of the presidential elections on a two to one margin. After this announcement many protested against the injustice of the manner in which the elections were conducted. Many priests who supported the poor peasants were arrested and tortured.

III. Main Incidents of Romero’s Life

Oscar Arnulfo Romero Galdamez was born in Ciudad Bornios, in the department of San Miguel, at 3:00 A.M. on August 15, 1917. (Bruno Chenu, et.al., The Book of Christian Martyrs, p. 202.) The village in which he was born was very remote and could be reached only on foot or by horseback.

When Romero was about two years old he was baptized by father Cecilio Morales on May 11, 1919. His father was a telegrapher, so Romero spent most of his childhood delivering letters and telegrams in the village. Romero also did his schooling in the local public schools, later his parents sent him to study under a teacher named Anita Iglesias. In his spare time he learnt to play the bamboo flute, piano and harmonium.

Since his father did not want him to duty any further, he got him to learn carpentry under an old man.

When Oscar was thirteen years old, he met a certain Father Monnoy to whom he expressed his desire to go to the seminary. Romero’s father was reluctant to let him go, but Oscar left to study in a seminary in San Miguel. In 1937 Oscar went on to study in the National Seminary in San Salvador which was run by the Jesuits. For some reason Oscar Romero had to stop his studies in midyear and go to Rome to study in the Gregorian University. These were the instructions of his Bishops. (Ibid., pp. 205, 206.)

Although Romero completed his degree in theology in 1940/ 41, he had to wait because he was not yet twenty four years old, to be ordained. He was finally ordained on April 4th 1942. He left Rome in 1943 to El Salvador. (Ibid., p. 201.)

He was appointed as Parish priest to a small town called Anamoros. A few months later, he was called back to be the secretary of the diocese. He held this post for twenty three years. Later he became the editor of the diocesan weekly called ‘Chaparrastique’. In June 21, 1970 Romero was ordained as bishop. (Ibid.) In May 1971, Archbishop church appointed Romero as editor of the Archdiocesan newspaper, ‘Orientacion’. On June 21st, 1975, a serious incident took place in Romero’s diocese. Guardsmen raided a village called Treseallus and killed five confesinos. This incident instilled in Romero anger and pain towards the ghastly incidents that were happening in the country Romero gradually began to see that the country was controlled by a repressive military government. He also realized that a few in the society had everything and that rest lived in destitution.

On February 21st, 1977 Oscar Romero was appointed as the Archbishop of San Salvador.

IV. Romero’s death and martyrdom

When Romero was appointed as Archbishop, many people saw him as a conservative churchman. (Ibid.) But Romero was going through a stage of transition, the grim realities of the struggles of the common people for justice had a profound impact on him. (Ibid.) On the eve of his assassination, his sermon was being broadcast on the radio, in which he condemned the attack on human rights and the violence done to the men, women and children. He made a special appeal to the army to stop the killings.

On the evening of March 24th, 1980 Romero was celebrating mass in a hospital near his house. While preaching his sermon, Oscar Romero was shot in the stomach by an explosive bullet, he collapsed on the altar and was later taken to the hospital where he was pronounced dead. The person who was the assassin was presumed to be a paramilitary commando. (Ibid.)

Conclusion and Reflection

The message that we receive from the bloody and inhuman deaths of Latin America is a controversial message. My first reactions were amazement and shock. The most important aspects to me were that the martyrs including Archbishop Romero were Catholics. Yet they were killed in a country which was and is culturally Catholic. There is also a blind belief that the era of dictatorial and fanatic governments has ended in the West. But Latin America reemphasizes the struggles for power and domination by vested interests.

The martyrdoms in Latin America are perfect examples of the struggle for justice against an unjust system. This is the clear difference between martyrdoms of early Christianity and present day martyrdoms. In the early Christian resistance, martyrdom did not directly involve opposition to the social or power structures.

When I saw the movie on Archbishop Romero I was struggling with the issue of "violence" which has become a part of the daily life of the oppressed in Latin America. To see so many Jesuits and Catholic priests taking up arms and pledging that they will not lay down arms, until justice is done invokes an inward struggle within me. This testimony in the face of failure asserts that victory when it is achieved by the oppressed is God’s gift even if it is won by taking control of history through resistance. The martyrs in their resistance proclaim a hope for the poor, it is the proclamation of the dawning of the kingdom of God which is a gift to the exploited, marginalised and the oppressed.

Bibliography

Brochman R. James, Romero: A Life, Mary Knoll, New York: Orbis Books,1989.

Chenu, Bruno, The Book of Christian Martyrs, London: SCM Press Ltd., 1990.

Lefebure, Marcus, Martyrdom Today, New York: T & T Clark Ltd. and The Seabury Press, Inc., 1983.

The Historical Context of El Salvador

Introduction: When we go back to the history of El Salvador we can notice its origin and culture. Socially and economically it was deprived by colonialism. History says that around 500 BC. an advanced civilization arose and flourished in parts of El Salvador but after AD. 900 this civilization declined. From AD. 300 to AD. 900 the ‘Maya’ civilization was in existence. During colonization, Columbus’ fourth voyage found this island.

Resources of the Country (Natural): El Salvador is small in size with San Salvador as its capital. Honduras, and Guatemala are in the east and west of El Salvador. Coffee, sugar, cotton and bananas are produced in El Salvador. Around the seventeenth century the Jesuit priests came to El Salvador and educated its people. Moreover they helped the native Indians to improve their agricultural products.

The Political Context: The political disputes began during the closing years of the colonial period. There are everywhere two prominent groups known to everybody -- the Conservatives and the Liberals. Around 1826-29 disputes arose between the two groups in El Salvador. The Liberals could not hold together Central America, so they split this area into five Republics. The goals of the Liberals was to have control over coffee production and export, take over all the lands from the poor peasants and to eliminate the native landers. Most of these Liberals were elites also. President Barrlos invited the Presbyterians to El Salvador for evangelization and the Liberals supported the protestant groups. Thus the Church was involved in politics. Since the protestants were ‘modern’ the Liberals were attracted. From 1912 onwards a number of US marines occupied these regions whereas the Catholics were with the native landers. Some of the priests returned from the Medellin Conference and viewed the whole situation of El Salvador from a liberationist perspective.

U.S. Trade and El Salvador’s Bondage: In the late 1950s the Central American Common Market (CACM) introduced industrialization, centralized planning etc. American tariffs exploited, forced and speeded up the growth of El Salvador for their vested interest in an unethical way. Meanwhile the strong political control of the U.S. over El Salvador started also economic control and as such the latter came into the hands of the Americans rather than into the hands of the native landers.

This situation aggravated the peasants. In 1918 the first labor union was formed. In 1920 the railroad workers went on strike. In 1932 the Regional Foundation of Workers of El Salvador was formed. In the same year there was a mass slaughter (mataza). This became the pivotal event for the peasants to revolt against the Government. In 1960 the U.S. showed its concern for the Salvadoran peasant’s problems and struggles. The American Institute for Free Labor Development concentrated on the urban workers and encouraged the Indians to adapt themselves to "bread and butter".

Liberation Against Power: President Molina reinvigorated the political repression especially directed against the rural and urban masses. The El Salvadorans had become accustomed to paying with their blood and life in the feudal system of exploitation. Molina ordered, for the first time, the lashing out against the Catholic Church, since the priests sided with the poor. This campaign destroyed the radio, the television station, because they were used by the priests. The priests reflected on the Latin American Episcopal Conference in Medellin in 1968. This approach implied an understanding of the Church as the people of God and identification with the sufferings and the hopes of the poor and the oppressed people.

Arrival of Archbishop Romero: It was in this situation that Archbishop Romero was chosen to succeed the Archbishop Cha’vez. The Salvadoran Government and the oligarchy were jubilant, because they thought (even the Vatican) that Romero would maintain good relationship with the Government as well as the oligarchy and, Rome was convinced about this. But unfortunately Romero sided with the aspirations of the poor Christian communities in El Salvador.

Archbishop Romero -- Life Sketch: Romero was born on August 15, 1917, in the town of Ciudad Barrios, in the district of San Miguel; El Salvador. His father was a postman and telegraphist. After his seminary training Romero became an ordained priest in 1942. On February 14 Georgetown University honored him by awarding the doctorate for his resolute defense of human rights. Meanwhile General Romero determined the fate of El Salvador by his ruthless dictatorship. At the outset of his bishopric one of bishop Romero’s closest friends and a priest, Father Grandes’ assassination made a tremendous impact on him. President Molina called bishop Romero to express his condolences on the death of Father Grandes. But this gesture was only a superficial one as it was an attempt to attract Romero to be on the side of the Government. But Romero did not yield.

After this, gradually, Romero began to change. With General Romero in power as President there were massacres, killings, cryings and sufferings everywhere and day after day a number of people disappeared. Guerillas, Government troops and armed people plundered the lives of innocent people. Thus the Government tried to debunk the Archbishop by propagating corruption. But Romero’s moral courage and unbeatable honesty had a hold on the poor masses who had great respect for him. His sermons strengthened the people in their faith and motivated them for liberation-oriented action. Thus the people, the priests and the religious people came to the streets of El Salvador carrying placards and slogans condemning the ‘National Security Policy’ adopted by the Salvadoran Government. At the end of the protest, the army fired at them. Thousands were killed and many wounded. As a result of this the image of the Salvadoran Government went on the decline as respect for human life was neither shown nor regarded. Out of these events two events received world wide coverage. On May eighth the troops mercilessly shot the people at the door of the Cathedral with machine guns and secondly the national security forces machine-gunned a group of students in front of the Venezuelan Embassy. This macabre incident was telecast world wide.

The Prophet of the Poor: Romero raised his prophetic voice not only to denounce the acts of outrage and injustice but also to point the way to conversion, for a change of and reorganization of the country. He faced the country’s crises with great honesty and criticized the National Security Policy, a Policy that was anti-people and anti-Christian. He declared "the Church cannot simply state that it condemns every kind of violence," for there are situations such as that of legitimate defense, in which the use of violence is both necessary and justified. Archbishop Romero’s stance was one of critical hopefulness and unshakeable demands. He called together all the groups and unified them.

The amount of repression that continued caused Archbishop Romero real heartache. The non-cooperation from the priestly circle increased his mental tension. Moreover, everyday he started to receive a number of persons who had been harassed by the violence carried out by the military or paramilitary forces. They came to him looking for help or protection. As the Bishop noticed the increased torrent of pain, and the shedding of innocent blood, his prophetic vocation took an angrier tone. In his famous letter addressed to President Carter of the United States, he asked, in the name of the rights of the people of El Salvador, not to send armaments or support any kind of repressive action by the armed forces. This indeed was a symbol of his courageous attitude. This letter he had addressed to Carter gained worldwide publicity, and this action by Romero embarrassed, the Government of El Salvador, the United States and the Vatican also.

Manner of Romero’s Martyrdom: His opposition to the repressive violence came to a climax in his Sunday homily on March 23. He called firmly upon the troops and the national guards to obey the law of God and not to obey the orders of the officers who might instruct them to kill their own brothers and sisters. "In the name of God and in the name of this suffering people whose cries rise daily more loudly to heaven, I plead you, I beg you, I order you in the name of God : Put an end to this repression".

This was the last straw. His enemies anger could not tolerate any more. On Monday, March 24, Romero fell victim of an assassin as he was standing at the Altar. He had just preached that a life offered for others is a sure token of resurrection and of victory. Archbishop Romero’s funeral service was held on March 30. It took place in the Square known as Barrios of San Salvador, in front of the Cathedral doors. Some hundred fifty thousand people attended the service. There were dozens of Prelates, Bishops, Priests, Religious and other dignitaries from around the world. During this service, the papal Representative, Cardinal Corripio of Mexico was preaching. Suddenly, soldiers opened fire and many of them got killed. Thus, the profound moral ignominy of the Salvadoran Government got manifested to the whole world. In the midst of bombs, shooting, bloodshed and horror, the Archbishop was hurriedly buried. He was buried as he had lived. The seeds of liberation, the only path toward the God of Jesus Christ, were sown by the martyrdom of Archbishop Romero.

The Theology of Romero:

God is the prime source of all life, justice, love and truth and the ultimate horizon to which all these reach out. Romero placed no limit to God’s will; his cry was a cry for justice and life and the proclamation of hope for the society and for the oppressed. Poverty and desolation is denial of God’s will, a perverted creation in which God’s glory is mocked at and scorned. Faith in God begins with defense of life here and now. To be absolutely accurate, the living poor man or woman is God’s glory. Sin is indeed something that causes death.

Archbishop Romero believed in the God of the Exodus who, today as yesterday, looks upon the captive and exploited people, hears their cries and then himself comes to free them, and to promise them a new land. Romero did not rely purely on political considerations, but on his faith in God. His sermons were listened to because in them the real situation of the country found expression. Romero’s love for truth was rooted in his faith in God.

Because of that faith, Archbishop Romero encountered God in the midst of the poor, the sure way to belief in God. And, he encountered God from the perspective of the poor. Here I am able to see that the "poor" preached (or became!) the Gospel to the Archbishop Romero.

Archbishop Romero was not only a believer, in addition to having been an Archbishop. Throughout his episcopal ministry, he proved his concrete faith in the God of the poor. He brought faith and episcopacy-personal charisma and the institution -- together.

Romero made the defense of the poor and the oppressed a specific and basic function of his episcopal ministry. He identified himself with them, and the poor came to him as a protector who was duty bound to put the full weight of his episcopal authority at their service. He succeeded in "institutionalizing" the preferential option for the poor. He saw toward the end that to humanize this liberative process, the Church must be present within it. It ought not ignore it or judge it merely from outside. He regarded the Church’s presence in this process as being of the highest importance both for the process itself and for the future of the Church.

Conclusion and Reflection:

Romero’s profound faith in God made him to play a vital role in the Church and in the Society. He saw the struggle of the Church in the society as well as the struggle of the society within the Church. He considered martyrdom as the final service that he could render to the Church and to his country. He said: " If they kill me, I will rise again in the people of El Salvador". He said this with great humility. He believed that martyrdom was a grace from God, and he did not believe that he had earned it. He offered his blood as the seed of liberation and a sign of hope that was soon to become a reality. At last, he affirmed the fact "... that a Bishop may die, but the Church of God, the people, will never die".

Through this write-up, I understand that the struggle of the people will never go in vain. It is not the authority, but the commitment of one’s faith for the sake of humanity is very important. I also learnt that one’s commitment for the sake of the poor will go beyond the barriers of caste, religion and ethnicity. God’s perspective is the perspective of the poor and marginalized people. In our own context, the Dalit’s perspective is God’s perspective, and Dalit consciousness is God’s consciousness. Thus, liberation is the key-note of the Gospel of Jesus. Serving selflessly is one’s commitment to the society. It is my faith and here I stand. Where one oppressed soul goes without food, clothes or human dignity, I will fight and I will fight to the very end.

Bibliography

Brochman, James R. Romero, New York: 1985.

Sobrino, Jon & Martin-Barn, Ignacio, Voice of the voiceless, New York: Orbis Books, 1985.

Berryman, Philip, Christians in Central American Revolution, New York: Orbis Books, 1984.

Mururilo, Herbert, The Acts of the Christian Martyrs, UK: 1985.

Brokman, James, The Church is all of you, Collins, Fount Paperbacks, 1985.

Sobrino, Jon & Romero, S.J. Martyr for Liberation, U.K:CIIR,1986.

Chenu, Bruno, Concilium, Martyrdom Today.

Introduction

Dietrich Bonhoeffer uttered these words in a sermon in the Kaiser-Wilhelm Memorial church in Berlin on June 15, 1932. Today he is incontestably called a martyr theologian. His death was the ultimate witness to a life of faith. (Georges Casales "Theology under the sign of martyrdom: Dietrich Bonhoeffer", Concilium 163, March 1983, T & T Clark, p. 8.) Bonhoeffer was a Lutheran pastor, a theologian and a great realist. He appeared as one who steadfastly opposed Nazi inhumanity and who offered a possibility of moving in the direction of Christian humanism inspired by the vision of Jesus as "the man for others" (D.H. Hopper, A Dissent on Bonhoeffer, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1975, p. 17.) Today he is at the focal point of all important theological issues. His valued contributions in the fields of religion, church, community, anthropology like ‘cheap grace’, ‘world come of age’. ‘religionless Christianity’ and ‘man for others’ stand out in the theological realm. His contributions in the field of ecumenism also are remarkable. He still exercises a considerable influence in the contemporary protestant theology. Finally, he was truly committed to the cause for which he stood and fought unto death.

His Life and Martyrdom

Dietrich Bonhoeffer along with a twin sister was born in Breslau on Feb. 4, 1906 as one of the 8 children of Karl Ludwig and Paula Bonhoeffer. His father was a university professor and a scholar on psychiatry and neurology. Lutheran in background, Bonhoeffer was a member of the Prussian church in which Lutheran and Reformed elements had interfused during 19th century. He inherited self control, ability and nobility from his father and sound human understanding, compassion, empathy, concern for the oppressed and consistent will power for the cause of the marginalized from his mother. In 1921 the family moved to Berlin to live m the residential districts of Grunewald. "He loved the mountains, the flowers, the animals, the greatest and simplest things of life. His geniality and inborn chivalry, his love of music, art and literature, and firmness of his character, the personal charm and openness to listen to others made him friends everywhere. He was always ready to take any risk." (Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship, U.S. Macmillan, 1969 [revised edition], p.9.)

To the astonishment of his family, he took the decision to study theology at the age of 14. His father was of opinion that traditional ministry was an out of date and redundant profession though he had to change his view later. (Eberhard Bethge, op. cit. "Bonhoeffer Exile…", p. 43.) When he was 17, he entered Tubingen university and sat at the feet of Adolf Von Harnak, R. Seeberg, Lietzmann and others. In 1927, when only 21 years old, he completed his doctoral dissertation entitled "Santorum Communio", which was a perspective theological enquiry into the Sociology of the church. By 1930 after his one year internship, his second dissertation "Act and Being" won him the privilege of lecturing in the field of systematic theology at the university of Berlin. (Ibid.) Before beginning the task, he took advantage of an opportunity to spend the 1930-31 academic year in the U.S. at the Union Theological Seminary.

In Berlin he was also a chaplain to student leaders of a confirmation class for slum boys and Secretary of the Youth commission of the World Alliance for International Friendship through the churches and of the universal Christian Council for Life and Work. In 1932 he experienced a conversion. Often when he preached the gospel, he had the impression of discovering it anew. He realized the demands of an authentic Christian life. Christianity is not only to be thought about but also to be lived. (Bruno Chenu, The Book of Christian Martyrs, London: SCM Press, 1990, p. 179.)

During 1930s events came to a head in Germany. On February 1 Bonhoeffer took a stand against Hitler in an address which was broadcast by Berlin Radio and was cut off. In it, he criticized the people’s aspiration to find a ‘Fuehrer’ i.e., a leader. There was a risk that this Fuehrer would turn to be a Verfuehrer -- a misleader, an idol Bonhoeffer had chosen to be on the side of the opposition and he took part in all struggles of the confessing church at Finkenwalde. (Ibid., p. 180) And, he was noted for his activities.

His book Creation and Fall was published in 1933. He left Berlin in October 1933 for London and ministered to the congregations there and tried to explain the true character of German church struggle against Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime. In 1935 the leaders of the Confessing Church who took a firm stand against the Nazi influenced Reich church asked him to return to Germany for establishing a seminary for their ministerial candidates. This seminary was first closed down by the Gestapo in 1937, but managed to continue on a makeshift basis until its final disruption in 1940. He published two of his important books, The Cost of Discipleship (1937) and Life Together (1939) during this time.

With the outbreak of war, he took on clandestine political responsibilities. "Treason had become the true love of country and the new love of the country (as exhibited by Hitler) had become treason". (Ibid.) His friends abroad forced him to leave the country to save his life. He did not like to serve in the army in an aggressive war. In June 1939 his close friends got him out of the country. But he felt that it was not right for him to stay out of his own country. His heart was throbbing for the oppressed and persecuted fellow Christians in Germany. He was not willing to take his choice in security. He never regretted his decision, not even in prison, from where he wrote:

I am sure of God’s hand and guidance .... You must never doubt that I am thankful and glad to go the way which I’m being led. My past life is abundantly full of God’s mercy and above all sin stands the forgiving love of the crucified. (Bonhoeffer, op.cit. Cost of, p. 13.)

On the 17th of March 1940. the Seminary for preachers was finally and definitely forbidden by the Gestapo. On 9th September, Bonhoeffer was forbidden to publish or speak in Germany. 25 young pastors were killed at the front. On 5th April 1943 he was arrested by the Gestapo on suspicion that he was involved in the attempt on the life of Hitler at Smolensk. On 23 July he was indicted on the charge of subversion by the armed forces. (Andre Dumas, Dietrich Bonhoeffer: Theologian of Reality,. London: SCM Press. 1971, p. 67.)

He spent 18 months in prison, till 8th October 1944. This is where he wrote his famous Letters from Prison. In them, he dealt with great themes which were to bring him theological fame: ‘The world came of age’, ‘non-religious Christianity’ and ‘God as weak and powerless in the world’. (Bruno Chenu, op.cit., p. 81.) Later he was transferred to the Gestapo prisons at Berlin and Buchenwald. He was finally taken to the concentration camp at Flossenburg, and was hanged on the morning of 9 April 1945.

The only account of his death has been given by the prison doctor who wrote that after the sentence had been read out to Bonhoeffer and those to be hanged with him, he saw pastor Bonhoeffer before taking off his prison garb, kneeling on the floor, praying fervently to his God. "I was most deeply moved by the way this lovable man prayed. So devout and so certain that God heard his prayer". He added.

At the place of execution he again said a short prayer and then climbed the steps of the gallows, brave and composed ... In the almost 50 years that I worked as a doctor I have hardly ever seen a man die so entirely submissive to the will of God. (G.B. Kelly, Liberating Faith,, Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House, 1984, p. 31.)

The day before, it seems, Bonhoeffer had confided: "This is the end for me, the beginning of life".

His Context and Concepts

For a better understanding of the worth of Bonhoeffer’s martyrdom we need to have a glance at the Germany of his time and his concepts. On Jan 30, 1933, Adolf Hitler was installed as Chancellor of the Third German Reich. The Jews were severely accused for the degraded and chaotic situation in Germany Hitler introduced "Aryan clause" which demanded liquidation of all Jews from Germany. When the war broke out, Bonhoeffer decided to involve himself and returned from America immediately. He wanted to participate fully in the national struggle as a dedicated son of the German soil in protesting against Hitler’s policies and oppression.

During Hitler’s reign the Church was divided. He wanted to interfere in the affairs of the Church and influence the leaders. Bonhoeffer was deeply related to the whole German liberal tradition. The great liberal atmosphere gave young Bonhoeffer freedom of life. He was also influenced by Karl Barth. He and his confessing Church well used the opportunity of Berlin Olympics to inform the maximum number of people about the situation of the Church in Germany. He was the first one to denounce on the radio the fatal consequences of the cult of the Fuehrer. He was also the first to take a stand against the anti-Semitic laws from April 1933 to 3 April. (Casailis Casdes, op. cit., Concilium, p.33.)

In 1933’s Church elections Hitler tried to pack the German Church with the Nazi followers. The resistance of German pastors reached its climax in the two synods of Barman and Dablem in 1934 to the membership of the Ecumenical Christian Council in Denmark marks the beginning of his career in the ecumenical circles. "Bonhoeffer was a liaison between the resistance movement and the free world, particularly Britain. Those in the Abwehr, the German military, and intelligence service, went forward in their plan to eliminate Hitler." (Roark Dallas, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Texas 76703, Word incorporated, Waco, 1973, p. 22.) He cooperated with them without ever losing the sense of his specific Christian identity. Rather it was because he was profoundly and totally mated in Christ who identified fully with him, that he could himself effect the same renunciation, join in total solidarity with others in their distress, without losing what is the very heart of the existence of the disciple following the steps of and in imitation of his master. (Georges Casales, op.cit. p. 33.) He criticized the metaphysical aspects of religion and introduced a "secular God who is against all religions". Thus, the political ecclesiastical and theological aspects of the time greatly influenced the life and thought of Bonhoeffer.

His Significance for Today: Some reflections

The significance of Bonhoeffer and his concepts are much debated even today. Bonhoeffer’s ideas evident in his life, his participation in the political resistance and Church struggles, his prison life, his theology especially his christology, ecclesiology and his understanding of the world as such are reactions to peculiar situations. It is these reactions that made him significant. He deserves to be enrolled among the greater adventurers of faith. From the beginning itself he set his face against the tyranny in Germany. He was the first to raise his voice against the monstrous persecution of the Jews when they were forbidden to hold public office or to enter in the ministry of the Church. (Roark Dallas. op.cit., Dietrich... p. 123.) Unlike other theologians of his Church, he did not do it against the prohibition placed on Judeo-Christians to remain members of the Christian community, but against the marginalization and degradation of the Jewish minority within the national community. (George Casales, op.cit., Concilium. p. 33.)

Protestantism does not have its roll of saints. But Bonhoeffer deserves to be enrolled in the memory as a hero of faith. "Awareness of the price of Jesus, prophetic reading of the contemporary corresponding in daily practice to the least details of theological conviction, such are the characteristics of the given life of Bonhoeffer... he was one of those saints whose whole existence consists of communicating around them the overflowing of eternal life already manifested in them today." (George Casales, op.cit., p .83.) Other great theologians of his time -- Karl Barth, Emil Brunner and Rudolf Bultmann are interesting for their theologies. But Bonhoeffer was a rare soul who had many interests, a rare being who came to grips with theology and the kind of person who would die for his convictions.

Bonhoeffer recalls the Church to discipleship. He defines the Church as Christ "existing as a commentary" and he understood it to be "a community and fellowship of faithful persons who live according to the principle of vicarious actions, i.e., an active "being for one another". Bonhoeffer says that the Church will be true when it stands for the humanity. He is concerned about the recovery of the Church by its true being and the message it has to proclaim to the world today.^. (Godsey John, op.cit., "preface" p. 17.)

The most important thing regarding Bonhoeffer is that his life gave power to his words. William Hamilton says: "Bonhoeffer is forcing us to shift our center of attention from theology to apologetics, criticism of culture, the problem of communication, and even from hermeneutics to shape and qualify our lives." (Lockley Harold, Dietrich Bonhoeffer: Thinker and Man of Action,, The Church quarterly, p. 292.) Hamilton suggests the intimate connection between Bonhoeffer’s life and thought. Bonhoeffer lived his theology. It is a truth that the respect paid to Bonhoeffer’s words is due to the overall witness of his life.

Finally he represents the shift in the emphasis of martyrdom over the centuries. Formerly martyrdom was the result of bearing testimony to the name of Jesus Christ in a hostile world. But Bonhoeffer projects a martyrdom that is the result of bearing testimony on behalf of a threatened humanity. Martyrdom which is a sacrifice for the sake of humanity. It is not for the sake of an idea or idol but for the sake of a justified humanity. (Eberhard Bethge, op.cit., Bonhoeffer, p. 162.)

He joined the conspiracy because he felt that "It is not only my task to look after the victims of madmen who drive a motorcar in a crowded street, but to do all in my power to stop their driving at all". (D. Bonhoeffer, op.cit., Cost of Discipleship, p. 22.) The martyrdom of Bonhoeffer and others who died like him came to pass in the twilight of political conspiracy and with the shifting feeling that their effort had come too late. Certainly it did not lead to a public confession in the market place or the coliseum nor any obviously heroic notion. Everything took place in the silent incognito of concentration camps and dark cellars. (Eberhard Bethge, op cit., p. 163.)

Bonhoeffer is not the holy heroic martyr but one who is a dishonored witness on behalf of humanity. He does not distance himself from the world as an example of purity, but stays and shares with those who are involved in the hopes and wrong doings of this world.

Today’s martyrs like Bonhoeffer need to be honored for the sake of their new life. And new life in Christ’s name as they have shown is possible today in new humanity, interpreting Christ’s presence as a crying out and acting on behalf of the humanity of men and women. Their death reminds the Church that the resurrected Lord in agony, is in the world and lives for it. It is for the Christian community to receive the testimony of blood and to give glory because it is living, surrounded by such a great host of witnesses. (George Casales, op.cit., in Concilium, p. 83.)

Bibliography

Dumas, Andre Dietrich Bonhoeffer: Theologian of Reality, London, SCM Press, 1971.

Chenu, Bruno et.al The Book of Christian Martyrs. London: SCM Press, 1990

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich The Cost of Discipleship, U.S. Macmillan, 1969.

Eberhard Bethge, Bonhoeffer Exile and Martyr, London: Collins St. James Place, 1975.

Casales George, "Theology under the sign of martyrdom Dietrich Bonhoeffer" in Concilium 163 Edinburgh: March 1983, T&T Clark.

Godfrey John O, Preface to Bonhoeffer, Philadelphia, Fortress Press, 1960.

Hopper D.H., A dissent on Bonhoeffer, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1975.

Kelley G.B., Liberating Faith, Minneapolis: Augsbuxg Pub. House, 1984.

Lockley Harold, Dietrich Bonhoeffer: "Thinker and man of action", The Church Quarterly Vol.2 (April 1970) London: SPCK, Epworth Press.

Roark Dallas M., Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Texas: Word Incorporated Waco, 1972.

Introduction

The unique characteristics of Maximilian Kolbe is that he deliberately offered himself up to death, to die in the place of another person in the Nazi extermination camp at Auschwitz. Another thing is that in the twentieth century the cause of death is changed or shifted. Persons became martyrs because they had a concern for human beings.

Historical Background

The Present

Poland is the largest of the West Slavic states, it exercised a marked influence in the past on the history of Eastern Europe. The Polish state occupied an area of 120,359 square miles. It had a mixed population of Poles, Germans, Liberians, Ukrainians, Russians and White Russians. But, after the formation of the Polish Republic in 1965, the inhabitants today are overwhelmingly of Polish origin. Poland’s census during the twentieth century indicates that the Roman Catholics comprised 75% of the population, the Orthodox and Jews 10% each and Protestants 3%. Moreover due to the large percentage of Catholics, Catholicism is acknowledged as the religion of the Polish population. Furthermore, Catholicism constituted the strongest effective spiritual force in all that is regarded as characteristic of Polish life and culture.

The Past

First of all, the Polish Catholics came under the Russian rule. The oppression of the Poles and of the Catholics was especially severe. During this time the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical administration was reduced to a condition of severe dependence under the Russian rule. Cooperation with the Church was based purely on considerations of public policy and also the Government refused to give official approval to the Episcopal candidates. When the Poles rose in revolution against the Russian terror in 1863 -1864, they were crushed with much bloodshed. Almost all the monasteries and Catholic societies were abolished and processions outside the Churches and collection of donations were forbidden. Moreover the Russians introduced their language in divine worship and punished numerous bishops and clerics who opposed the new regulation.

Secondly, the Poles came under the Austrian rule during the early part of the nineteenth century. Though it was ruled by Austria but, during this period it was given autonomy, especially in the area of education, that is, education at all levels was conducted in Polish. Even the Poles enjoyed religious freedom to some extent, that is, bishops were active as ecclesiastical statesmen.

During the middle of the nineteenth century Poland came under the German rule. In the beginning, Poland enjoyed religious freedom. "The numerous pilgrimages to the shrines of the Blessed Virgin at Czestochowa, Piekany and Ostra Brama in Vilna and the increasing participation in the foreign missions and in religious congresses bore witness to the flourishing religious life". (John P. Whalen, New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Maximilian Kolbe" [Poland], New York: Mcgraw-Hill Book Company, 1967, Vol. II, p. 481.) Examples of flourishing religious life can be seen in the following:

"Until the end of World War I Polish Catholicism led a different kind of existence in the eastern province of Prussia, in the Russian vistula area and in Austrian Galicia, but within two decades an abrupt standardization was put into effect. The German-Soviet pact and the German-Polish campaign of September 1939 created a new political situation for the Church, the result of which was the incorporation of the eastern Polish territory into the Soviet Union which entailed the prohibition of religious propaganda, persecutions and deportations of clergy and laity." (Ibid., p. 481.)

After that Poland came under the National Socialist Regime and the German Nationalist Socialist Regime seized the territory of the ecclesiastical province and established a General Government that included the main part of the ecclesiastical provinces. Then the German authorities started to harass the people and the first step they took was the persecution of the Jews by which they threatened the Church.

In the Warta district members of the hierarchy were brutally beaten, the clergy were decimated in a frightful manner, seminars, numerous establishments of religious orders and all Catholic schools and associations were abolished, ecclesiastical property was expropriated, sisters were driven-from their convents, churches in large part were closed, wayside crosses and shrines were destroyed, Polish inscriptions on gravestones were effaced and loyalty to religion was made extremely difficult and was ridiculed in every conceivable manner and more than three million Polish Catholics were left completely outside the pale of the law and were at the mercy of the despotic whims of the National Socialists.

The Archbishop of Cracow, named Adam Sapieha, served as a spokesman for all the Polish bishops and made repeated representations to the administration of the General Government in order to obtain alleviations. But the German officials did not pay any attention to it. On the other hand their anti ecclesiastical attack paralyzed Catholic life and widely destroyed it.

Moreover the Polish bishops and priests were exiled or arrested and put in concentration camps. Among them was Maximilian Kolbe, a priest. He offered his life in substitution for that of a father of a family who had been condemned to die in the Nazi extermination camp at Auschwitz.

His Life History

Maximilian Kolbe whose real name was Raymond came from Zdienskawala in Poland. He was born on January 08,1894, into a humble family. At sixteen he chose to become a Franciscan. "Very soon his life took an extraordinary turn. With very reduced financial means, but with a simple faith and the overflowing energy of a man of action and an peerless organizer, he started a publishing network which circulated books by the million". (Bruno Chenu, et.al, The book of Christian Martyrs, Maximilian Kolbe", London: SCM, 1988, pp. 168-171.)

One example will indicate the extent of his amazing creative capacity. In 1930 he left for Japan and it is here in little less than a month he created and published a Japanese edition of the Journal. The first printing was ten thousand copies and it was published in Nagasaki.

He returned to Europe in 1936. Well known in Poland, he was arrested for the first time during the German offensive of 1939 and sent to the concentration camp. Then he was freed but once again he was arrested for the second time on February 17, 1941, and was deported to Auschwitz. He arrived there on May 28, 1941, and it was here that he met with his death. Even though he lived for 47 years we do not have enough material to substantiate it.

Francis’ Version of Martyrdom

"The story goes: A prisoner had succeeded in escaping. How, will always remain a mystery, for the surveillance was such as to discourage any attempt at escape. The news made us fear the worst. We all knew the custom of the camps: for each escape ten of his companions had to die of hunger in a camp cellar. I remember that day minute by minute, without knowing the exact date, because at Auschwitz there was no calendar and we had lost all sense of time. I think it was at the beginning of August. That evening, one of us did not reply to the roll-call. The alarm was raised immediately, and in Block 14 we were kept under guard for three hours. Then we were left alone, but by way of punishment we were deprived of food, and our rations were thrown into a nearby gutter. But that was only a beginning. The next day, after roll-call, instead of being sent to work we were made to stand in the yard until three in the afternoon. The sun was very strong and many of us fainted, collapsing one after another. Finally we were given something to eat and we continued to wait, still standing until evening. The drama erupted after the evening roll-call. Colonel Fritsch, the Camp Commandant accompanied by Officer Palitsch, brought me to attention. I remember his words very clearly: The prisoner who escaped yesterday has not been found. Ten of you will die. Then he walked in front of us, looking at us one after another and from time to time shouting out a number. When he stopped in front of me, I realized that my fate was settled. He simply said ‘5659’. I was in the same file as Maximilian. I was the last or one of the last to be designated. It was the final good-bye. One of the ten cried out, farewell, friends, we shall see you where true justice reigns. Another found strength to say, long live Poland, I am dying for my country. My thoughts flew to Helen, my wife, and my two children. I cried, I think I said, I am sorry for them: I shall never see them again. But I do not remember the exact words."

Several seconds passed. It all seemed over when a number ‘116670’ suddenly broke ranks. His head was slightly bent; spectacles gave him a lively and penetrating look He had a strong smile. He stood before the Camp Commandant at attention and identified himself. I heard a conversation in German. Later I learned from Dr. Viodarki, who was standing nearby, the content of the conversation. What does this Polish pig want asked Fritsch, very angry. Kolbe replied, "I am a fairly old Catholic priest and I would like to take his place, and the finger was pointed in my direction. He has a wife and children". Stupefied, the Commandant could only reply, "here’s a crazy priest." And he simply added, "alright".

I was put back into my place without having had time to say anything to Maxmilian Kolbe. I was saved. And I owe to him the fact that I could tell you all this. The news quickly spread all round the camp. It was the first and the last time that such an incident happened in the whole history of Auschwitz.

Speaking of his savior, D’Xy concluded. "For a long time I felt remorse when I thought of Maxmilian. By allowing myself to be saved, I had signed his death warrant. But now, on reflection, I understood that a man like him could not have done otherwise. Besides, he did it freely. Perhaps he thought that as a priest his place was beside the condemned man to help them keep hope. In fact he was with them to the last."

Francis has lived with his wife Helen in their little house in Crzeb, where a picture of Maxmilian Kolbe has a place of honor. Their two children died young during the war. A niece with heart problems has taken their place. Helen says ‘we only live by memories’. (Ibid., pp. 168-170.)

The Manner of his Death

The way Maxmilian Kolbe met death is also a personal testimony given by Bruno Borgowiec, who told it to his parish priest before he died in 1947. He narrates the incident:

"The ten condemned to death went through terrible days. From the underground cell in which they were shut up there continually arose the echo of prayers and canticles. As the days went by, the number of survivors lessened. The man in-charge of emptying the buckets of urine found them always empty. Thirst drove the prisoners to drink the contents. Father Kolbe never asked for anything and did not complain, rather he encouraged the others, saying that the fugitive might be found and then they would all be freed. He was always on his knees or sitting, propped up against the wall. One of the guards remarked, this priest is really a great man. We have never seen anyone like him’.

On August 14, the eve of the Feast of the Assumption, four prisoners were still alive but only Father Kolbe could speak. The cell had to be used for other prisoners; a German gave each of them an injection and they died immediately. Fr. Kolbe was the last: Borgowiec saw him propped up against the wall, eyes open, face serene, head inclined to the left, the death certificate, as always made out with precision indicates the hour of death 12.30." (Ibid., p. 170.)

Reflection

What categorically distinguishes the life of Maxmilian Kolbe from others is the way he decided to die on behalf of some one else so that person may be able to live. All the events are not necessarily fact and experience. Few events can only be viewed as facts as they do not influence or may not make any impact on people to experience. Few events can only be viewed as experience as it may be proved substantially.

But this event has both fact and experience. If only a fact it may not affect us much because it may be one among many other facts of life in the universe. It might be a divine fact affecting divine life vertically between God and a few without affecting others very much. It may be a human fact which does not seem to make an impact upon others but the determination to die on behalf of others is seen in the life of Kolbe. It is both a divine and human fact and besides that an experience available for any one of us that is different altogether. Thus it became an event in which our life and hope and destiny are at stake.

It is a human fact because it expressed the real responsibility for others in the history of martyrdom.

It is a divine fact because it portrayed the supreme and selfless love offered by Jesus Christ who was an embodiment of God’s love.

Another that we see from the life of Maxmilian Kolbe is his bright future and the example we get from this is his amazing creativity but yet he did not care for his future but looked ahead for the future of others.

Conclusion

The greatest lesson that we learn from the life of Maxmilian Kolbe is to decide for whom we are called upon to live and die for. This context raises an important question -- what determines my being a Christian? The lesson demands from us a solid answer, our being a Christian may not be and cannot be constituted by any of our religious relationships to God but by our social involvement, a new life in our being there only for others, in participating in the being of Jesus.

Bibliography

Chenu, Bruno, et.al, The Book of Christian Martyrs, London: SCM Press, 1988, pp. 168-171.

Whalen, John P. New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Maxmilian Kolbe (Poland)", New York: Mcgraw-Hill Book Company, 1967, Vol. II, pp. 479-483.

Introduction

Marie Skobtsova was married twice. She had three children. She became an orthodox religious at the age of forty one. She was a victim of Ravensbruck concentration camp. Gassed on Easter eve 1945, mother Marie Skobtsova had a strange career. She was an intellectual, a poet and a politician.

Born in Russia, she emigrated to France with her second husband. It was a time when the émigrés had to face hardship and poverty. She was a witness to the world war II. She risked her life to help the Jews when they were threatened.

The martyrs of the first part of the 20th century witnessed to the freedom of heart and spirit, and they were and defenders of human dignity. In the affirmation of their faith, they are no longer just defenders of authentic faith but defenders of life. This is portrayed beautifully in the life of Marie Skobtsova.

Life and Work of Marie Skobtsova

The maiden name of mother Marie Skobtsova was Elizabeth (Lisa) Vurienne Pilenko. She was born in the south of Russia, not far from the Black sea. Her family were landowners. She lost her father during her adolescence and this affected her deeply, so much so, that in her rebellion she rejected all religious faith.

Lisa was a brilliant student. She participated actively in the political discussion which filled the evenings of the University and wanted to dedicate herself to the service of the poor and the needy. At the age of eighteen, she married the student president, Dimitri Kuzmin-Karavayev, it is said, more out of pity than out of love. At that time she was involved in avant-garde literary circles in St. Petersburg. She joined the Revolutionary socialist party after being separated from her husband, who ‘converted’ to Catholicism and became a Jesuit. She did not because of her strong conviction but more so because she really wanted to be at the service of the poor. But the Bolshevik victory in 1917 eliminated the Moderate socialists.

In Feb. 1917, Lisa became the first woman Mayor of her birthplace in Anapa at the age of 26 years. But sharing power with the local Soviets was not easy, and she found herself joining tribunal of the White Army. She defended herself so well that a few weeks later she married the President of the tribunal, Daniel Skobtsova. By him, she had a son Yuri, and a second, daughter Anastasia.

In 1922, the family decided to leave Russia and settle in France. At that time Russian émigrés lived in utmost poverty. Lisa did embroidery and Daniel worked as a taxi driver. But the second marriage was happier than the first. The couple separated when Anastasia, Lisa’s younger daughter, died in March 1926.

That was the turning point in Lisa’s life. The long agony of little Anastasis was, by her own confession ‘a visitation from the Lord.’ She rediscovered faith in God, that faith and mutual love which alone allows the understanding and acceptance of death. She then decided to follow the Lord Jesus Christ. From then on Lisa had found her vocation. She began to devote herself to the Christian movement of orthodox Russian students. In fact the movement was concerned not only with students but also with Russian émigrés working in the factories of the suburbs of Paris, and in the mines and steel works in the North and East of France. Many were sunk in alcohol and drugs. It was to their service that Lisa felt herself called. The drunk, the desperate, the wretched brought out her motherly affection. And she said, "They have no need of sermons, they need the most basic thing of all -- compassion."

She composed poems which illuminate the meaning which gave to her life:

Consolation

In March 1932, when she obtained the marital separation authorized by the Church, Lisa made her monastic profession in the Church of the Institution of St. Sergius in Paris. Metropolitan Eulogius gave her a new name, Marie, "In memory of St. Mary of Egypt. Like this Mary, who lived a life of penitence in the desert, go and sit and speak in the desert of human hearts".

Mother Marie’s monastery, she decided would be in the outside world, close to human sufferings. It was by these wounds of the world that she would go to God. She expressed it in an article which she wrote on ‘the commandment of the Gospel’ on the eve of the second world war.

"So let us bear witness of the love of these poor -- for in reality, in this form they are none other than the heavenly king who does not squander our gifts but returns them to us a hundredfold. No, the poor, the unfortunate are truly him in ‘the reality of his poverty and wretchedness, and equally truly, Christ is present in them and suffers in them. We welcome the poor in the very name of the love of Christ, not because this will bring us a reward but because the sacrificial love of Christ embraces us, because we are united with Christ in this love, with Christ in his suffering on the cross, and we do not suffer for our purification and our salvation, but truly for the other, for the poor, the unfortunate so that our suffering may alleviate theirs. It is not in one’s own name that one can love sacrificially but only in the name of Christ, in the name of the image of God which reveals itself to us in human beings."

In 1935, a group of orthodox concerned about social involvement founded ‘Orthodox Action’ and Marie became the first President. Its aim was always to serve men and women as the image and likeness of God, the temple of the Holy Spirit, the incorruptible ikon of God. Mother Marie’s house was also an intellectual and spiritual center.

In 1936, Mother Marie learned of the death of her older daughter Gaina, at the age of 23. At that time Marie wrote a meditation entitled ‘Birth through death’. Here is an extract:

But then came the World War II. Mother Marie had a very harsh opinion of Hitler, whom she called a mad man and a paranoiac. When the Jews were threatened, she did all in her power to protect them. She hid a dozen of them in her house.

However, Mother Marie’s turn soon arrived. On 8th Feb. 1943, the SS broke into the house in the rue de Lourmel. Failing to find Marie, they took away her son Yuri and a priest called Klepinin.

Mother Marie too was arrested soon after and taken to Ronainville, then to Compiegne, and finally to Ravensbruck concentration camp. 16,000 French women were interned in this camp, but only 2000 returned.

Marie continued her Christian mission of service and compassion with the same zeal. Shortly after her arrest she had written ‘I am your message Lord. Throw me the blazing torch into the night, that all may see and understand what it means to be your disciple.’

The strength of her faith gave courage to all her companions. A woman who escaped relates: ‘In the evening, gathered round her wretched bed, we would listen to her. She would tell us of her work in Paris, of her hope of seeing union come about between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. Her words gave us courage when we grew weak under the constantly growing insights of terror.’

However, the terrible conditions of detention took toll of her robust constitution. She had increasing difficulty in walking and she was racked by suffering, though she never complained.

Manner of Death

No one has precise knowledge about the last hours of Mother Marie. According to the first version, she could not pass the physical walking tests required and therefore was condemned to death. According to another version, she took the place of a detainee who was going to be gassed. All that is known is that when the Red cross entered Ravensbruck camp on Easter day 1945, it was too late for Mother Marie.

Reflection

There has been a shift in the 20th century regarding the course of martyrdom. Human beings have become by and large the main concern, respect for human beings, their identity, so often denied, ridiculed and exploited. This can be seen very clearly in the life, work and death of Mother Marie Skobtsova. As she said, "it is not in one’s own name one can love sacrificially, but only in the name of Christ, in the name of the image of God which reveals itself to me in human beings’. Here life was an ongoing service of love. She took the problems of others who were persecuted and were poor and desperate. Her personal fulfillment was not in her individual satisfaction but in the service of others. It was to their service she felt herself called. As she wrote:

This is the very thing that we talk about in our class and preach in the chapel. But the question that we ought to ask ourselves today is ‘are we ready to put it into practice? or is it just for the sake of others that we are preaching? One thing that spoke volumes to me is her word.

‘They have no need of sermons; they need the most basic thing of all, compassion’: And that is one thing that I find lacking in the world today. When we look into the life of Jesus Christ we find that many times He did things because he was moved by compassion. But most of the time we remain passive and are unmoved even in the face of pain and suffering in others. Therefore, even though we preach and shout at the top of our voice about justice, exploitation, oppression and so on which we are very fond of doing here, if we do not put it into practice it has no meaning. This is put very beautifully by Marie and her poem ‘Consolation’:

Another thing that touched me very deeply was her word ‘I am your message Lord ...’ How many of us can say this with confidence. Personally, in this regard I find myself failing in many ways. But it has been a great eye-opener for me and made me realize that as a follower of Christ, our life as a whole should be the message to others.

In conclusion, I would like to quote from the book ‘Blessed are the Persecuted’ by Ivo Lesboupin: ‘Here is a trial, a test, that places the Christian squarely before two options’. Submit and survive or refuse to submit, maintain your freedom, and live a life full of risk and insecurity. To take the first live a life full of risk and insecurity To take the first option is mediocrity enslavement to the whims of an inhuman option means following Christ in his tribulations, holding fast to his mission, resisting the forces of destruction, sharing in the building of a new world, in which all human beings will actually be free.’

These options are placed before us today. It is for us to decide which one to choose. The choice is ours.

Bibliography

Chenu, Bruno, et.al., The Book of Christian Martyrs, London: SCM Press, 1988.

Metz, J.B. & Schillebeeck E. eds. Concilium, Edinburgh: T & T Clark, New York: The Seabury Press, 1983.

Lesbaupin, I., Blessed are the Persecuted, Maryknoll, NewYork: Orbis Books, 1987.

Introduction

The work of the martyrs of Uganda interests me because, firstly, Christian witness in Uganda is a typical example for the Africans who uphold and keep their faith for God. Secondly, it is the very place where, in 1976, the Idi Amin Government was recognized internationally as a lawless regime, where Christians were killed in large numbers, since 1971 figuring around 400,000. They were killed on charge of plotting against the country without any truth or basis. This paper concentrates on the martyrs during the period 1885-1887.

Social and Political Background

Uganda is a British protectorate in Central Africa, lying at the northern end of lake Victoria in Wyomza region of Kenya. A hundred years ago, Uganda was known as Buganda. The country was first visited by Henry M. Stanley, who in 1875, sent word to England that king Mtisa of Uganda was anxious to have missionaries sent there. In 1877 the mission in Uganda was started by CMS and, in 1879, the Roman Catholics arrived in the land.

However, when the Christian missions were being planted in Uganda the colonial division in Africa occurred at the same time identifying missionaries as White conquerors.

Persecutions began during the time of king Mwanga the son of Mtisa who in the beginning loved the missionaries. King Mwanga was addressed as ‘Lebo Kabaka’ -- ‘my Lord, the king’ and the king’s minister was called katikiro.

In 1878 five missionaries came to Uganda. After their arrival they ransomed slave children and started an orphanage which was to be the nucleus of future Christianity but they were disappointed by the poor response from the people. At the same time the children were very difficult to handle. So, in October 1882 the fathers left the field but in spite of that a few converts left behind did not abandon their faith but instead won other young people over to Christianity.

When Mwanga became king he asked the fathers to return but it was only after three years that they had returned and there was great joy for the praying ones as they were called to return.

Reasons for Persecution

The Christians increased in number and were staunch in their faith. They refused to accept all their traditional customs and so they were accused of destroying their traditional order. They refused to offer sacrifices to the tribal gods. They even refused to kill their enemies and take them as prisoners of war. They led an upright and honest life. Mwanga felt threatened that the Christian faith might bring down the wrath of the ancestors on the kingdom. However, the Christians though faithful to Mwanga did not obey him in one area, that was when the king commanded them to commit acts contrary to the law of God, they refused and instead prayed and listened to the Word of God. Mwanga had the habit of homosexuality and his subjects and servants were his victims but the Christians resisted him courageously.

The more serious plan of Mwanga was when he learned from the local traditional forecast about the arrival of an invader from the East who would ‘devour’ Buganda. To this he reacted with force by treating the Protestant native Christians with great cruelty He murdered the Anglican Bishop Harrington and he shifted his target to his pages.

The Cause of Martyrdom

Joseph Mukasa was the first person to be martyred. He was the chief katikiro and he was called the ‘Balikuddembe’ -- a man of peace. Joseph Mukasa was martyred as he was against the evil works of Mwanga in spite of being aware of the fact that the consequences would be the death penalty. He tried to save his colleagues from the practice of homosexuality and further he intervened when Mwanga ordered the missionaries, who were coming to Uganda to be killed. Mwanga thought that he would no longer find any obedient servant if Joseph Mukasa continued to teach his religion. Therefore he wanted to suppress him and his minister was also of the same opinion.

One day the king became sick and Joseph Mukasa gave him a dose of opium but the king became worse and he thought that Joseph was trying to poison him.

On the fateful day Joseph Mukasa was very calm and he knew what was going to happen since that morning Mwanga had sent him the body of a child. Mwanga’s minister had ordered the executioner to seize Joseph Mukasa. When Joseph Mukasa was brought before the king he was mocked by the king ‘now there will no longer be two kings’ and Joseph replied ‘I am going to die for God’. The king had ordered the executioner to burn Joseph, but Mukjanga, the executioner, loved Joseph and so he went about the execution slowly hoping that the king would change his mind.

The Manner of his Martyrdom

Joseph Mukasa went to his death like a free man. He refused to be bound. He said, ‘Why bind me? Do you think I shall flee? Flee where, to God? A Christian who gives his life for God is not afraid to die.’ The executioner took pity on him and before he was burnt alive, he cut off Joseph’s head. But before he died Joseph said to the executioner ‘tell Mwanga this -- I forgive him for killing me without cause, but he must change his life. Otherwise I shall speak against him at God’s tribunal.’ On hearing this, Mwanga killed a servant and mixed his ashes with Joseph’s so that he would not be recognized by anybody and talk against the king at God’s tribunal. Joseph was martyred on November 15, 1885, at the age of 26. He was the first Catholic to be martyred.

The Collective Martyrdom

On May 27 the martyrs arrived in Wamugengo. They were bound very tightly and shut up in huts in small groups. Forks were put around their necks and they were attached to the posts of the huts. But even in that situation, the eldest in the group encouraged them to be courageous saying, ‘do not be afraid, hold fast! We shall not die twice; our friends are already with our Lord, we shall soon be with them.’ When they were in prison they recalled the death of Jesus, His resurrection and ascension. They prayed without ceasing and called God our Father.

On June 2, 1886. in the evening they heard the sounds of tam-tam and the death chants but even then they were not scared but instead prayed for strength. Early in the morning when they were released of their bonds and brought out, everybody was happy welcoming each other with joy, saying ‘how are you? The day of combat has at last arrived!’ This amazed the executioner who had said; ‘they are crazy, they seem to be going to a festival.’

Mbaga Tuzinde, the seventeen year old, son of the chief executioner, remained faithful to God, repeating the words ‘I am a Christian’ when his kinsfolk wanted to save him. On the day of the execution he arrived at the place at a run and joined the other martyrs. He was welcomed by his friends who said, ‘Bravo! Mbaga, you are brave. Thanks be to God’ Mbaga replied, ‘you have prayed for me, thank you.’

The Manner of the Martyrs

The hundred executioners had their faces painted black and red and with animal skin and martial head-dress, they danced and sang ‘today the kinsfolk of these children will weep’, but the praying ones were not afraid, saying ‘this is the place whence we shall go to see Jesus Christ. In one moment we shall see Him.’ The executioners were perplexed. They thought that these Christians were crazy.

The chief executioner gave a small gourd of banana to each person as was the custom, but no one would take it because they remembered Jesus. Their hands were tied behind their backs and their feet tied together and wrapped in bundles of reeds; they were put on a great pile of wood. Mukayanga tried to save Dani his kinsman but he refused to abandon his God. So he had him killed before rolling him in a bundle. And he went to Mbaga his son and Dani; "brother, my son, abandon your religion. The king will pardon you.’ Mbaga replied. ‘I want to die for God.’ ‘I will hide you.’ ‘No, they will find me. Kill me." Then his father said to him ‘go and be foolish elsewhere.’ He was killed before being put on the pile of wood. Mukayanga hid his face with a piece of cloth and wept because he had killed his son.

Among the praying ones three persons were pardoned by the king and so they were removed from the pile of wood before it was set on fire. The executioner placed one more heap of wood on top of them and lit the wood all around. The flame rose in a circle as over a burning hut but they only heard the mourning prayer of the martyrs who prayed till their last breath.

On January 27, 1887, Jean-Marie was beheaded in secret by the katikiro and his body was thrown into a pond. Jean-Marie was a friend of Joseph Mukasa and the page of king Mutha.

Reflection

Firstly, unlike other martyrs we see that no trials were given to the Christian martyrs by the court, as in the case of Joseph Mukasa who was straight away ordered to be killed.

Secondly, the eschatological dimension of life was very prominent. The Christian hope after death was very strong in the mind of the martyrs.

Thirdly, can we justify the work of king Mwanga? Just because the colonizer had done wrong, the innocent missionaries were condemned to die.

Fourthly, here we see Christianity versus traditional religion. How can we interpret the gospel in such a situation without destroying their norms and ethos in the given situation?

Fifthly, their martyrdom was mainly because of the political threat to the king.

Sixthly, we see that the Christians stopped worshipping their ancestors which led to enmity between them and the Mwanga regime. But in my opinion, ancestor worship is still practiced in Christianity too. This was mainly because of the wrong teachings implanted by the missionaries.

Seventhly, the Uganda people and king Mwanga feared the wrath of God as they had an animistic philosophical idea of wrath from God if they displeased their pagan and tribal gods.

Finally, in the case of Joseph Mukasa and the martyrs -- their belief in God removed all fears. Thus their understanding of God was the ultimate.

Conclusion

The martyrs were crazy, indeed, they were crazy for God. Their faithfulness to God was so strong that they did not give in to human weaknesses. They never showed even the slightest sign of weakness but with courage and prayer on their lips they died. Their conviction in God was beyond explanation.

For our own Reflection

What motivated the martyrs to pray and sing even at the time of their martyrdom? What strength did they have ? Is their faith conviction reflective of their hope of life after death?

Bibliography

Chenu Bruno, et. al,, The Book of Christian Martyrs, London: SCM Press, 1990.

The whole world is indebted, grateful and obliged to missionaries, who having left their families, prestigious positions, wealth and status, went overseas in spite of the hostile environment that prevailed there, determined to labor for the sake of the Gospel and for the upliftment of human condition. It is in this remarkable heritage comes David Livingstone who was not only a great missionary of Africa but also an outstanding explorer, geographer, doctor, anthropologist and scientist. "He was a man of an extraordinarily firm, already wholesome temperament, a marvel of saintliness, but equally a marvel of efficiency and common sense," (D.C. Somerwell, Livingstone [London: 1936], p. 10.) He, through his tireless and utterly dedicated labor opened up the interior of the then concealed African continent to the world, paving way for the progress of the gospel and commercial track. His remarkable contribution was his endeavor to abolish slave trade, which had kept the African people under bondage. His entire mission was centered on the wholistic well being of the people - physical, social and spiritual and the humanization of people who were not considered human beings. The contribution that Livingstone has made not only to Christianity but to the whole world is immense and his life speaks more than his words.

Early Life

Livingstone had a very humble origin of being born to poor but religious parents in Blantyre, Scotland, on March 19, 1813. At a time when he had to go to school and play with his friends, his family’s financial condition forced him to work as a ‘piecer boy’ in a cotton factory, where he worked from six in the morning to eight in the night. He made the best use of time whole working in the factory, by learning Latin. After coming back from the factory he used to attend night school from eight to twelve where he learnt Greek, Botany and Geology.

His parents played a vital role in his childhood by nurturing him in Christian faith. Livingstone himself recapitulated, the factor that motivated him to lead a life of commitment: ‘In the glow of love which Christianity inspires, I was resolved to devote my life to the alleviation of human misery’. (David Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, [London: 1987], p. 2.)

At the age of 19, having been challenged by a missionary, Robert Moffat, he resolved to become a medical missionary in China. With this life objective in mind and preparing himself for what he was to be, he studied medicine at Glasgow University during winter with the money he earned by working during summer. He also studied theology, classics and science with hardly any money for his own subsistence. Looking back at his own early life, Livingstone remarks, "Looking back now on that life of toil I cannot but feel thankful that it formed such a material part of my early education and were it possible. I should like to begin life over again in the same lowly style and to pass through the same hard training." (Ibid., p. 6.)

Missionary Life

With the zeal of becoming a missionary burning within him, he joined the London Missionary Society in 1838. He also took his degree in medicine from the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons and was made Licentiate of the Faculty. To him, his profession as a doctor was one which was "‘permanently’ devoted to practical benevolence." (Ibid., p. 7)

His desire to go to China went unfulfilled because of the opium war that was raging but instead sailed to Africa. He set out to the African coast on December 8, 1840 and arrived at Kuruman, the station of Moffat and Hamilton on July 31, 1841. He traveled extensively in the Bechuana country and visited the Bakawains. In 1843, he went in further north to the interior and established a mission station at Mabatsa, among the Bakhatala tribe. It was here that he had an encounter with a lion, in which he miraculously escaped but had his left arm permanently damaged.

In May 1844, Livingstone married Mary, daughter of Robert Moffat. Mary had been brought up in the mission field at Kuruman and she did realize beforehand the risk of marrying a missionary and the hardships she had to encounter in the mission field. Yet she was whole-heartedly willing to marry Livingstone and she proved herself to be a worthy companion, a fine wife and a gentle mother in the years to come.

At the close of 1845 he moved back again to Bakwains where he witnessed the conversion of Sechele, chief of the Bakwains. But severe drought forced him to move to Kolenberg, within two years.

At Kolenberg he met the much feared Boers who were slave trading the natives. They used to capture men and women in large numbers and sell them mostly to be domestic slaves. This inhuman practice pained Livingstone and he determined to put an end to this barbarous degrading custom. He held a number of talks with the Boers persuading them to stop slave trading. The Boers retaliated by stopping all trade by expelling missionaries from that region. After much persuasion a treaty was made with the Boers to permit English treaty also. Livingstone’s primary concern was to open up this great land in promotion of commercial trade and missionary endeavors, thereby putting an end both to the cultural isolation and alienation and making civilization and the gospel accessible to the people of Africa. A major step towards this end was abolishing slave trade which presumed the natives of Africa to be lower than beasts.

"Livingstone intended to be no ordinary missionary, a pioneer a filler in of the empty and mythical map of interior Africa." (Ibid., p. 6.) One of the major contributions of Livingstone made as an explorer and navigator was the discovery of Lake Ngami.

Setting out on June 1894 along with Oswell and Murray they crossed over the once-dreaded Kahori desert in their attempt to discover Lake Ngami. On Aug. 1, 1849 they spotted Ngami’s marvelous spread of water but could not proceed further to meet the chief Sebituane because some of the local chiefs declined to offer assistance so they had to return to Kolenberg. However, in 1850 he made a second attempt along with his family to meet Sebituane and also establish a mission station further north, but this too failed because of the server illness of children.

In June, Livingstone along with Oswell discovered river Zambesi in the heart of the African continent, a river thus far unknown to the outside world. Livingstone did not want to expose his already tired family to the hostility of the Boers at Kolenberg and hence returned to Cape Town. When they came back to Cape in June, 1852, he was having ‘a black coat eleven years out of fashion and without a penny and salary to draw, half naked children’. (David Livingstone, op.cit., p. 76.) He also heard that his mission station at Kolenberg was utterly devastated by the Boers. But none of these could deter him in his mission. He was resolute to face these challenges all alone.

Having sent his family back to England, he embarked on his fourth great journey of exploration through Linyanti and Zambesi to Loanda. At Linyanti, he met Sekeletu, the son and successor of Sebituane. However he had to endure tremendous hardships. During this hazardous expedition he traced Lake Dilola but ‘suffered extreme hunger and thirst, fever, dysentery, attacks of wild beasts, robbers and hostile tribes.’ (Henry, Orbis, Dwight, et.al [eds.], The encyclopedia Missions, New York and London, 1904, p. 339.). He arrived at St. Paul de Loanda, the capital of Angola on the west coast of Africa on May 31, 1854. From Loanda, he traversed right across the continent to the eastern coasts, making yet another magnificent discovery on the way -- the Victoria Falls. He finally reached Quillmone on May 20, 1856. It was during this perilous journey that he was conferred upon the degree of L.L.D. by the University of Glorious and was awarded the Queen’s Gold medal, the highest honor of the Royal Geographical society.

In December 1856, he went to England for the first time after a period of sixteen long years in Africa. Though he had gone through mental agony, depression, sickness and poverty during this long period, he never once thought of going back to England. Even this visit was a short one and he was determined to come back as early as possible. When he went to England, he was received with great honor by the London Missionary Society, Royal Geographical Society, universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and by all classes of society. (Ibid., p. 400) He addressed various distinguished audiences at prestigious universities during his stay in England. Moreover, it was during this time that he published his remarkable masterpiece, the first of its kind to portray his adventurous exploration in Africa and the richness of the continent. The world knew hardly anything about Africa prior to Livingstone’s book Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa where he exposed the slave trade and impairments to missionary activity.

Before returning to Africa in 1858, with great pain he resigned from the London Missionary Society. It was because the L.M.S. and his narrow minded critics had felt that Livingstone was doing more as a geographic than as a pioneer missionary. Perhaps in their opinion, Livingstone’s mission in Africa was only to be a missionary, converting the ‘heathens’ and not to travel around exploring the country. But the British government appointed Livingstone as the British consul for East Africa, ‘for the promotion of commerce and civilization with a view to the extinction of the slave trade’. (George Shepperson, David Livingstone and Ravumem, Edinburgh, 1965, p. 10.) He, along with his team, explored Lake Nyopsa and was personally pained to see the extent of slave trafficking widespread in the regions around the lake. "This by all counts was Livingstone’s most dismal and frustrating period. He failed in his main objects, and he also failed personally as the leader of expedition of white men" (187 Cecil Northecott, Livingstone in Africa. London, 1857, p.20.) It was during this time that a tragic incident occurred in his life. His wife, who put up with him all adverse situations, toiling with him tirelessly, died on April 27, 1862 at Shapunga in the Zambia region. Though he was shattered because of the terrible loss, even this could not restrain him in his mission.

Even after returning to Africa he was getting a number of letters and criticism because many felt that Livingstone’s book contained more information on geography, flora and fauna rather than his works, as a missionary. But Livingstone regarded himself as but a pioneer in missionary enterprise. During the sixteen years he had done much to bring the knowledge of Christ to the tribes that had never heard of him -- "probably no missionary in Africa had ever preached to so many blacks".

His team members unable to withstand the severe physical conditions were forced to return home but Livingstone was determined to carry on his mission alone. (William Garden Blaikie, The Personal Life of David Livingstone, New York, 1980, p.231.) In 1864, he proceeded to Zanzibar. But his financial...condition forced him to sell the ship in which he sailed and buy a smaller craft. With this he traveled extensively in water-ways exploring possibilities and opening up motorways, for exploration. Sir Roderic Murchison urged Livingstone to become a full-time explorer abandoning his vocation as a missionary. But Livingstone’s remarkable reply was "I would not consent to go simply as a geographer, but as a missionary, and to do geography by the way". (William Garden Blaikie, The Personal Life of David Livingstone, New York, 1980, p.231.) In spite of being honored for his magnificent and unequalled achievements in the field of explorations, Livingstone did not forget his call and commitment to be a missionary. Though he traveled to unexplored region, he never lacked the zeal of preaching the good news to the people of those distant regions. Had he opted to be a professional geographer, he could have obtained financial aid from his government, comfort and sophistication. But he made a professional option to suffer and to endure affliction in this land which he published in his book The Sambeis and its Tributaries: A Real Eye Opener for the Western World.

After returning to England, he resolved to trace the source of the Nile. Though this was to be a tedious risky journey, Livingstone undertook it as a challenge. But his spirit was quenched often by the treacherousness of his own assistants and the continuous threats from the slave hunters. The slave hunters viewed Livingstone as a threat to their profession so they were posing constant intimidations and were continuing their aggressive atrocities on the natives in a massive scale. Livingstone was also deceived by his own attendants. Once when he was in Tanganika, two of his assistants ran away with his medicine chest, which served ‘the primary purpose of treating fever and dysentery’. Now without the medicine, it was impossible to treat himself or others. Another time, the person who was in-charge of Livingstone’s store used up everything when Livingstone was not there. In spite of all these disappointments he pressed on toward his goal, but his mobility was curtailed because of severe illness. The person who had once shown tremendous potential to walk any distance had to be carried for the first time in thirty years. Such was his physical condition because he could not treat his fever, dysentery and ulcer in the feet. Undeterred, he moved forward and finally located what he believed to be was the cause of source of the river Nile.

The news of his ailment reached the outside world but his whereabouts were unknown. In order to find Livingstone and urge him to return to his home country the traveling correspondent of the New York Herald M. Stanley was sent to Africa. After initial failure, and disappointments, he finally managed to reach the place where Livingstone was. He, along with Livingstone, made some further explorations and discoveries but could not succeed in persuading Livingstone to return to England. Livingstone’s firm conviction was:

So Stanley bade a sad and painful farewell to Livingstone on March 15, 1892 and returned to New York. But he carried with him a wealth of information about countries and people hitherto unexplored and unknown. (Ibid., p. 632.)

After Stanley had left, Livingstone continued his explorations with revitalized strength and increased vigor and on August 25, 1872, he proceeded to explore the Chambeze region. He moved on with unwavering zeal and no physical hardship or illness could hinder his determination. But soon he came to a point where he could not proceed any further. "Dysentery in aggravated form renewed it’s exhausting attacks and his constitution could no longer withstand it. He had to be carried in a litter by turns suffering excruciating pain and for hours insensible or fainting from loss of blood. (192 Henry Orbis Dwight, op.cit,. p. 193 )

As death spares no human, good or bad, the life of this great noble character had to come to an end. While he was in Ilala, in the early hours of May 1, 1874, his attendants Susi Chuna found him dead by his bed in the kneeling position. The world had lost an outstanding missionary, a determined and dedicated explorer and a fine, noble man. He had lived a life of self-sacrifice in the continent which was so dear to him and now he had laid his life for the people whom he loved so much. His heart was buried in the land where his heart was, before embalming his body and taking it to England. The mortal remains of Livingstone, accompanied by his attendant, reached England on April 15, 1874 and was laid to rest in the Westminster abbey.

Livingstone made remarkable contribution to both missionary activity and to the field of astronomy and geography. His objective was the upliftment of the people of Africa - spiritually and socially. He writes "As far as I am myself concerned, the opening of the new central country is a matter for congratulations, only in so far as it opens, up to prospect for the elevation of the inhabitants". (David Livingstone, op.cit., p. 673.) He through his astronomical observation, made the task of other explorers and missionaries much easier as the astronomers Royal once remarked:

Blaikie, in his preface to the first edition of his splendid Bibliography of Livingstone, observes:

Livingstone exercised such a great influence on people around him that they marveled at his extraordinary life and character. What more can a man ask for than the testimony given by his companion and friend as well:

Reflection

The Christian world will remember David Livingstone forever as a pioneer missionary, who risked his life and family to go and serve the dark continent of Africa to places where none had dared to set their feet and as one who opened up the continent of Africa. For, missionary enterprise and missionary activity in Africa would not have been possible if this man had not taken the risk, to enter central Africa. Before his first journey to England, he writes," I view the end of the geographical feat as the beginning of missionary enterprise". (David Livingstone, op. cit., p.673.) Livingstone showed the way for many more humanists and missionaries to step into Africa and serve the people of Africa. The entire world will remember him for much more than just his missionary work. He labored for the advancement of trade and commerce into the inland of Africa, elevation and humanization of the natives and the abolition of slave trafficking. He paved the way for the permanent abolition of slave trade in Africa in the years ahead. He traveled extensively and filled up the blank spaces in the globe. The fruits of Livingstone’s hard labor is seen now when so many of the people in Africa are Christians through the toil of subsequent missions to this great land.

In today’s context, there are so many oppressive and suppressive elements in our society. The Apartheid system in Africa; the African liberation leader Nelson Mandela is trying to liberate the black people who are greatly repressed by the white people.

Today the so called Christian countries like America are oppressing other poor countries. The recent Gulf war with Iraq is a clear indication of claiming American supremacy over against weaker countries.

Though slavery is abolished by law, in India many kinds of slavery are continuing in different parts.

Women are greatly discriminated against in our society The Church has the duty to create awareness among women to come out from their oppression.

In the Church as well as in society, men are decision-makers. Women are aloof in society. The Church of South India has given ordination to some women. But these women are also discriminated against. In Bangalore city itself, in one church, a woman pastor is working. But very less number of men are going for Church service. So, the men are not concerned about women.

The patriarchal society oppresses women. High caste people oppress lower caste people. For example, in Andhra Pradesh the high caste people killed the Dalits.

Sankar Guha Nyagi died because he stood for the laborers and workers. So we have to construct a new ethics for the Church. But we have to work for these people who are living in utter poverty and are oppressed by other people. Jesus Christ, David Livingstone and Nyagi all worked for others. Bonhoeffer said when Christ calls a person because he has to die for others. We have to rededicate ourselves for the cause of oppressed people and participate in their struggles so that the marginalized feel that the Church is in solidarity with them. Only by doing so the Church may become relevant to them.

Bibliography

Blaikie, William Gorden, The Personal Life of David Livingstone, New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 1880.

Campbell, R. J., Livingstone, London: Ernest Benn Limited, 1929.

Dwight, Henry, A. Allen, Encyclopedia of Missions, 2nd ed., Tapper and Edwin Munsell New York and London: Frank and Bliss (eds.) Wagolls Company. 1904.

Livingstone, David, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa,London: John Murray. 1987.

Maclachian, T. Banks, David Livingstone, Edinburgh Oliphant Anderson and Ferrier, Year of Publication not mentioned.

Northecott, Cecil, Livingstone in Africa, London: Lutterworth Press, 1857.

Seaver; George, David Livingstone: His Life and Letters, London:Lutterworth Press, 1957.

Shepperson, George (ed.) David Livingstone and Rovuma, Edinburgh:University Press, 1965.

Somerwell, D. C., Livingstone, London: Duckworth. 1936.